Luke v Josephus on Census of Quirinius

Here is a summary of the academic paper "Josephus Misdated the Census of Quirinius" by John H. Rhoads (published in JETS, March 2011).

The Core Thesis

Rhoads argues that the famous contradiction between the Gospel of Luke and the historian Josephus regarding the date of the Census of Quirinius is real, but that Josephus is the one who is mistaken, not Luke.

Most historians assume Josephus is correct in dating the census to 6 AD (ten years after Herod the Great's death), which makes Luke’s claim that Jesus was born during the census and during the reign of Herod (c. 4 BC) historically impossible. Rhoads argues that Josephus accidentally "double-counted" a single event, placing it once in 4 BC and again in 6 AD.

We know the Luke was very accurate as a historian on many obscure details (titles of officials, geography, local customs) in the book of Acts, suggesting he should be given the benefit of the doubt here over the inconsistent Josephus.

Josephus has inaccuracy issues as a historian

Here are the most significant examples where historians (secular and religious) agree that Josephus likely got dates or timelines wrong.

1. The "Tobiad Romance" (Off by ~60 years)

This is considered one of his clumsiest chronological errors. Josephus tells the saga of the Tobiad family (influential Jewish tax collectors) and sets it during the reign of Ptolemy V (c. 200–180 BC).

The details of the story (tax farming system, political alliances) only make sense historically if they happened much earlier, under Ptolemy III (c. 240 BC). Historians believe Josephus was using a popular folk tale or "family romance" as a source and simply didn't know where to plug it into the official timeline, so he guessed—and missed by about 60 years.

2. Nehemiah and Xerxes (The Persian Mix-up)

In Antiquities of the Jews, Josephus dates the biblical governor Nehemiah to the reign of Xerxes (died 465 BC).

The Bible (and established Persian chronology) places Nehemiah under Artaxerxes I (reigned 465–424 BC). This creates a timeline compression that messes up the dates for the rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls. Josephus likely confused the Persian names (a common error in antiquity).

3. The Death of Herod (Internal Contradiction)

Josephus gives contradictory math regarding when Herod the Great died.

• In Antiquities: He says Herod reigned 37 years from his appointment by Rome (40 BC), which puts his death in 4 or 3 BC.
• In The Jewish War: He says Herod reigned 37 years from capturing Jerusalem (37 BC), which would put his death in 1 BC or 1 AD.
•  This internal conflict is the fuel for the debate over Jesus' birth year. If Herod died in 1 BC, the "1946/Quirinius" conflict might disappear entirely.

4. John the Baptist’s Execution (Chronological Shift)

Josephus records the execution of John the Baptist, but the context implies a date that conflicts with the Gospels.

• Josephus's Timeline: He links John's death to the defeat of Herod Antipas by King Aretas, which happened around 36 AD.

• The Problem: If John died in 36 AD, he would have died after Jesus (who was crucified c. 30–33 AD). The Gospels clearly state John was executed before Jesus died.

• The Likely Error: Most scholars think Josephus grouped John's death with the Aretas war legally/theologically (implying the defeat was God's punishment for the execution) rather than chronologically.

5. Impossible Numbers (The Exaggeration Habit)

While not a "date," this highlights his looseness with facts.

Josephus claims the rural region of Galilee had over 3 million inhabitants (modern estimates suggest fewer than 300,000).

Josephus claims 1.1 million people died during the siege of 70 AD. Tacitus (a Roman historian) estimated the total besieged population was only 600,000.

Conclusion

Josephus is generally reliable for the broad strokes of history (who was king, who fought whom), but he is notorious for being sloppy with specific years. He often "patches" different sources together without checking if the timelines match, leading to duplications and transpositions. and thus, it is historically probable that Quirinius conducted a census in 4 BC (under the nickname Sabinus or simply misdated by Josephus) and that the rebellion associated with it happened then. Therefore, Luke’s account of Jesus being born during a census under Herod the Great may be historically accurate.

Rhoads' Arguments

1. The "Three Judases" are One Person

Josephus describes three different rebellion leaders named "Judas" active around this time. Rhoads argues these are likely three differing accounts of the same man leading the same revolt in 4 BC.

• Judas, son of Sepphoris (4 BC): Raided the royal armory in Galilee.

• Judas, son of Saripheus (4 BC): Called for the removal of the Roman eagle from the temple; was burned alive by Herod.

• Judas the Galilean (6 AD): Led a famous tax revolt against the Census of Quirinius.

• The Evidence: Rhoads notes that it is historically improbable that three different revolutionary leaders with the same name, operating in the same regions, would all clash with the same High Priest (Joazar) at different times. He concludes these are duplicate records of a single tax revolt that occurred in 4 BC.

2. The Problem of High Priest Joazar

Josephus records that the High Priest Joazar was deposed (removed) by the Roman governor Quirinius after the census in 6 AD. However, Josephus also records that Joazar was High Priest when Herod died in 4 BC.

It is unlikely that Joazar was deposed in 6 AD if he had already been removed from power by Herod's son Archelaus in 4 BC.

]If the census actually happened in 4 BC, then Joazar’s removal by Quirinius and his removal during the transition of power after Herod’s death are the same event.

3. Sabinus = Quirinius

Josephus mentions a Roman official named Sabinus who was in Judea in 4 BC (right after Herod's death) to secure Herod's estate and conduct a financial accounting for Caesar.  Rhoads suggests that "Sabinus" is not a separate person but a nickname or cognomen for Quirinius. Quirinius was from the town of Lanuvium (a Sabine town) and had the nickname "The Sabine."

Thus, if Sabinus is Quirinius, then Josephus actually does place Quirinius in Judea in 4 BC, conducting a financial registration—exactly as Luke 2:2 claims.

4. Presence of Coponius

Normally, historians place Coponius in Judea starting in 6 AD, when he was appointed as the first Roman Prefect following the removal of Herod Archelaus. However, the video and the scholar John Rhoads argue that historical traces place him there much earlier, supporting the idea that the census occurred during the reign of Herod the Great (c. 5–4 BC).

The core of this argument relies on a textual detail in Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews (Book 17, Chapter 5). In roughly 5 BC, Herod the Great put his son Antipater on trial for treason before a Roman council. Some manuscripts and scholarly reconstructions of this passage mention a Roman official named Coponius being present at this trial.

Thus, if Coponius was historically present in Judea in 5 BC assisting with Roman administrative/legal matters, it contradicts the idea that he first arrived in 6 AD.

The problem for Josephus is that he explicitly states that Coponius arrived alongside Quirinius to administer the province and conduct the census. Thus, it's likely that they both arrived in 6 AD to liquidate Archelaus's estate.

If the "Coponius" at the trial in 5 BC is the same man, it suggests the "Quirinius & Coponius" team was actually active in Judea during Herod's reign. This supports the theory that Josephus took a single event (the arrival of Quirinius/Sabinus and Coponius in 4 BC) and accidentally duplicated it, placing it ten years later in 6 AD.

Luke's account vindicated

Since Coponius was already in Judea in 5–4 BC acting as a Roman administrator (likely alongside Quirinius/Sabinus), then Luke’s claim that a registration happened before Herod died becomes historically plausible.  It suggests Rome was already managing Judean finances (via officials like Coponius) before they officially turned it into a province in 6 AD.

Conclusion

Rhoads concludes that Josephus, working from multiple conflicting sources, mistakenly split one event (the 4 BC tax revolt) into two separate events spaced ten years apart. Therefore, Luke’s account of a census under Herod the Great is historically plausible and likely accurate. 

Was the word "homosexual" was added to the Bible in 1946?

The popular claim that the word "homosexual" was wrongly added to the Bible in 1946 (in the Revised Standard Version) and that the Bible, therefore, does not actually condemn homosexuality. Dr. Yuan rejects this claim, offering four main arguments:

1. Interpretation Relies on Original Text, Not Translations

serious Bible study must look at the original Hebrew and Greek, not just English words selected by translators in the 20th century. While it is true that the specific English word "homosexual" did not appear until 1946, the underlying meaning in the original text has remained consistent.

2. Absence of a Word ≠ Absence of a Concept

He points out that the Bible lacks explicit words for many concepts that are clearly present in the text, such as "Trinity" or even "sex.. The Bible uses euphemisms like "to know" or "to lie with" to describe sexual intercourse. Just because the specific ancient Greek word for "homosexual" didn't exist doesn't mean the concept of same-sex relations wasn't being described and prohibited.

3. Moral Objections Predate 1946

The idea that the church suddenly "invented" this sin in 1946 is historically false. He states that Jewish literature (before and after Jesus) and Church history (Early, Medieval, and Modern) have been uniform and unanimous in rejecting same-sex sexual behavior long before the 1946.

4. Opposition is "Canonical," Not Just One Verse

The prohibition is not based on a single mistranslated verse in 1 Corinthians 6:9 but is found throughout the "Canon" (the whole Bible), including Genesis 19, Leviticus 18 & 20, and 1 Timothy 1:10.

The Greek word Paul coined in 1 Corinthians (arsenokoitai) is a direct compound of two words found in the Greek translation of Leviticus 20:13 ("male" and "bed"), explicitly linking the New Testament prohibition to the Old Testament law. For more on arsenokoitai is here and here

Conclusion: The English word "homosexual" was only coined in the late 19th century and became more common in the mid-20th century in psychological and clinical contexts. The translators of the 1946 RSV used this modern term to make the text more understandable to contemporary readers.

Note: 1 Corinthians 6:11 says "And such were some of you", emphasizing that the Gospel message offers washing, sanctification, and justification to everyone, regardless of their past behaviors 

Constantine's Role in the First Council of Nicaea and the Formation of the Biblical Canon.

I'd like to do a quick rundown on the First Council of Nicaea, what it's purpose was, what's Constantine's role was and what impact it had on the formation of the Biblical canon - spoiler alert: it has zero impact as it wasn't discussed. See the last section. 

1. Constantine's Role

Constantine the Great played a pivotal, though not supreme, political and ceremonial role in the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD).

Initiator and convener: He initiated the council and summoned bishops from across the Christian world to address the Arian controversy and unify doctrine. He considered unity of the empire and church essential for political stability

Political patron: He provided the imperial sponsorship, resources, and safe conduct for the gathering, which took place in Nicaea (Iznik, in modern Turkey). His presence emphasized that the council had imperial backing.

Mediating influence (not a doctrinal sovereign): He did not appoint himself as a doctrinal authority. The council was led by the bishops, with the presiding role typically attributed to Hosius of Corduba (a key advisor to Constantine). Constantine sought to influence outcomes through discussion and conciliation rather than by doctrinal decree.

Role in outcomes: He supported the adoption of the Nicene Creed, which established the doctrine of the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father (homoousios) against Arian positions. He also played a part in shaping the Meletian (Nicene) strategy and in the drafting of canonical and disciplinary arrangements, aiming for unity and cohesion within the church and empire.

Aftermath involvement: Constantine maintained a protective, sometimes paternal role in the church, using his authority to enforce the council’s decisions in the empire and to suppress theological alternatives that threatened imperial unity.

In summary, Constantine acted as the imperial catalyst and patron of the Council, facilitating its assembly, guiding its political context, and endorsing its doctrinal conclusions, while stopping short of claiming direct theological authority.

2. The Purpose of First Council of Nicaea (325 AD)

The First Council of Nicaea was primarily convened to address a growing theological rift that threatened the unity of the Christian Church and the stability of the Roman Empire.

Here is a summary of the key events and issues that led up to the council in 325 AD:

A. The Arian Controversy

The immediate spark for the council was a fierce theological dispute in Alexandria, Egypt.

The Conflict: A presbyter named Arius began teaching that Jesus Christ was not eternal but was instead a "created" being subordinate to the Father. He famously argued, "There was a time when he was not."

The Opposition: His bishop, Alexander of Alexandria, vehemently disagreed, arguing that Jesus was co-eternal and of the same substance as God the Father.

The Escalation: This disagreement evolved from a local debate into a widespread schism that divided church leaders and congregations across the Eastern Roman Empire, causing riots and public unrest.

B. The Arguments of Arius

Arius, a presbyter from Alexandria, prioritized strict monotheism and the logic of causality. He argued that if the Father begat the Son, there must have been a beginning to the Son's existence.

The Slogan: Arius’s most famous argument was the phrase, "There was a time when he was not." He argued that the Son had a definite beginning and was not co-eternal with the Father.

The "Creature" Argument: Arius contended that the Son was a "creature" (ktisma) created out of nothing (ex nihilo) by the will of the Father. While the Son was the highest and first of all creatures—perfect and superior to the rest of creation—he was still essentially different from the unbegotten God.

Mutability: Arius argued that because the Son was a creature, he was arguably subject to change (mutable), whereas God is by nature unchangeable.

Scriptural Proofs: Arius relied heavily on specific Bible verses that seemed to imply subordination or creation:

Proverbs 8:22: "The Lord created me at the beginning of his work..." (based on the Septuagint translation). Arius viewed this as the "smoking gun" that Wisdom (Christ) was created.

John 14:28: Jesus says, "The Father is greater than I."

Colossians 1:15: Jesus is called the "firstborn of all creation," which Arius interpreted as being part of the created order.

C. The Arguments of Alexander and Athanasius

Bishop Alexander of Alexandria (and his young deacon Athanasius, who would become the theological heavyweight of the era) argued that Arius's position destroyed Christianity by turning Christ into a mere demigod.   

• Eternal Generation: Alexander argued that God is eternally the Father. If God is "Father," he must always have had a "Son." Therefore, the Son is co-eternal. There was never a time when the Father was alone; the Son exists eternally with him.   

• Homoousios (Same Substance): The anti-Arian party insisted that the Son was not created out of nothing but was begotten from the substance of the Father. They used the Greek term homoousios ("of one substance" or "consubstantial") to argue that the Son shares the exact same divine reality as the Father.   

• The Soteriological Argument (Salvation): This was Athanasius’s most powerful point. He argued that only God can save humanity.   

  • If Christ were a creature, his death would just be the death of one creature for others, which has no infinite value to bridge the gap between God and man.   

  • Therefore, for Christ to save us, he must be fully God.   

• Scriptural Proofs: They countered Arius with verses emphasizing unity and divinity:

  • John 10:30: "I and the Father are one."

  • John 1:1: "In the beginning was the Word... and the Word was God."   

  • Hebrews 1:3: The Son is the "radiance of God's glory." (Just as light is generated by the sun continuously and is never separate from it, the Son is eternally generated by the Father).   

3. The Quest for Imperial Unity

Emperor Constantine I had recently defeated his rival Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.

• Political Stability: Constantine hoped Christianity would serve as a unifying force for his empire. However, the Arian controversy was creating deep divisions rather than unity.   

• Failed Mediation: Constantine initially sent his advisor, Hosius of Corduba, to Alexandria to mediate the dispute and encourage the two sides to reconcile. When this diplomatic mission failed to resolve the issue, Constantine realized a more authoritative solution was needed.   

A. The Convocation

To settle the matter once and for all, Constantine took the unprecedented step of calling a general council of bishops from across the entire empire.

• Purpose: The goal was to establish a unified consensus on the nature of Christ (specifically his divinity and relationship to the Father) and to secure peace within the church.   

• Significance: This gathering became the First Council of Nicaea, the first ecumenical council, intended to create a standardized doctrine (which eventually became the Nicene Creed)

B. Nicene Creed

Definition: The council produced the original Nicene Creed, stating that the Son is “consubstantial” with the Father (homoousios) and of one essence (ousia) with the Father.

Purpose: Addresses the Arian controversy by affirming the full divinity of the Son and the unity of the Son with the Father.

Significance: Established a foundational orthodox standard for Christian doctrine about the nature of Christ and the Trinity, shaping Christology for centuries.

Original Nicene Creed (325 AD)

Consubstantial with the Father

Light from Light, true God from true God

Begotten, not made, of one being (ousia) with the Father

Through Him all things were made

For us men and our salvation He came down from heaven

By the Holy Spirit the Lord, the giver of life

He was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and became man

He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate

He suffered, and was buried

On the third day He rose again in accordance with the Scriptures

He ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of the Father

He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead

His kingdom will have no end

We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life

Who proceeds from the Father

Who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glowed (glorified)

Who spoke through the prophets

We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church

We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins

We look for the resurrection of the dead

And life in the world to come. Amen.

C. 20 Canons (disciplinary and organizational measures)

Church structure and governance

• Standardized ecclesiastical practice across the church, including rules for bishops, presbyters, and deacons.

• Regulated episcopal ordination, election, and provincial synods to promote consistency and accountability.

Liturgy and practice

• Established uniform dates for celebrating Easter (though calendar reforms would continue to evolve) and other liturgical practices to promote cohesion across the Christian world.

Canon law and discipline

• Addressed issues such as the handling of clergy who recanted under pressure (apostasy), restoration of penitents, and the legitimacy of certain episcopal acts.

• Prohibited certain practices and promoted uniform discipline to prevent local customs from diverging into heterodoxy or disorder.

Excommunication and Christian unity

• Emphasized the goal of unity within the Church and the empire, reducing regional disputes that could threaten political stability.

D Historical significance

Doctrinal coherence

• Cemented the Nicene view of the relationship between the Father and the Son as foundational for orthodox Christian theology, influencing later councils and creeds (notably the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381).

Imperial involvement in church affairs

• Demonstrated the increasing role of the Roman emperor in doctrinal and organizational matters, setting a precedent for imperial sponsorship and influence in church affairs.

Canonical framework

• Laid the groundwork for early church law and governance, contributing to how bishops were organized, how disputes were handled, and how uniform practice could be pursued across diverse Christian communities.

Long-term doctrinal disputes

• Even though the council affirmed homoousios, Arianism and other Christological positions persisted for centuries, leading to further councils and theological debates. Nicaea’s creed became a touchstone in these ongoing discussions.

4. What about it's impact on the Biblical canon - which books include/exclude?

 
The Council of Nicaea did not address the Biblical canon at all; its primary purpose was to resolve the Arian controversy regarding the divinity of Jesus Christ, and produced the Nicene Creed to that end.

People mistakenly believe the Council of Nicaea decided the Biblical canon because a medieval myth claiming a miraculous selection process was popularized by Enlightenment thinkers and modern fiction.

The misconception stems from several sources:

1) The Synodicon Vetus: The myth's origin is traced to an obscure 9th-century Greek manuscript that claimed the canonical and apocryphal books were placed on an altar, and the spurious ones fell to the floor.

2) Voltaire's Popularization: The French philosopher Voltaire widely circulated this fictitious anecdote in his 18th-century Philosophical Dictionary, using it to satirize the Church.

3) Modern Fiction: Bestselling novels, such as Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code, exploited and perpetuated the idea that a politically motivated Emperor Constantine orchestrated the selection of the Biblical books at Nicaea.

4) Misunderstanding the Term "Canon": The word canon means different things. The Council of Nicaea did issue twenty rules or "canons" (disciplinary laws) for church governance, which may have led to confusion with the Biblical "canon" (list of authoritative books).

Note: The formation of the Biblical canon was a gradual process that occurred over centuries, driven by widespread consensus and usage within Christian communities, rather than a single council's vote. Key factors included Apostolic authorship or association, and alignment with orthodox Christian teachings. Later regional councils, such as the Council of Rome (382 AD), the Synod of Hippo (393 AD), and the Councils of Carthage (397 AD and 419 AD), affirmed the 27 books of the New Testament that were already widely accepted.

Sources for Constantine/First Council of Nicaea

Britannica

Wikipedia

Catholic365

Christian-History

FourthCentury.com

Source for Debunking the myth of Biblical canon/First Council of Nicaea

Timothy Paul Jones website

Metaethics - an overview

 Metaethics—the study of what morality actually is (rather than just which actions are right or wrong).

Here is a breakdown of the common views, organized by how they answer the question: "Are moral facts real?"

Moral Realism (The "Objective" View)

This view holds that moral facts exist independently of our opinions, much like scientific facts (e.g., gravity or the shape of the earth).

• The Core Belief: "Killing is wrong" is a fact that is true regardless of what anyone thinks or feels about it. If the whole world voted that killing was okay, the Moral Realist would say the whole world is simply mistaken.

• Analogy: Math. $2+2=4$ is true whether you like it or not.

Moral Anti-Realism (The "Subjective" Views)

This is the broad category for views that deny that objective moral facts exist. It is usually broken down into three specific positions:

A. Moral Relativism (Cultural or Individual)

This is the most common alternative view. It holds that moral statements can be true, but only relative to a specific standpoint.

• The Core Belief: "Killing is wrong" is true for us because our culture says so, but it might be "right" for a different culture (e.g., the Aztecs practicing sacrifice). There is no "God's eye view" to say which culture is correct.

• Analogy: Etiquette or Law. Driving on the left side of the road is "right" in the UK but "wrong" in the US. Neither is objectively correct by the laws of physics; it depends on where you are.

B. Non-Cognitivism (Emotivism)

This view argues that moral statements aren't facts at all—they are expressions of emotion.

• The Core Belief: When you say "Killing is wrong," you aren't stating a fact. You are essentially screaming "Boo on killing!" or expressing a negative feeling. It is neither true nor false; it is just an emotional outburst or a command.

• Analogy: Cheering for a sports team. Yelling "Go Team!" isn't true or false; it's an expression of support.

Error Theory (Moral Nihilism)

This is the skeptical view that moral talk is trying to state facts, but it always fails because moral properties don't exist.

• The Core Belief: "Killing is wrong" is a false statement. But "Killing is right" is also a false statement. Morality is a fiction we invented, like witches or unicorns.

• Analogy: Atheism regarding mythology. If someone asks, "Is Zeus stronger than Apollo?", the Error Theorist says, "Neither, because Greek gods don't exist."

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Quick Comparison Table

View	Are moral claims True/False?	Is morality objective?	"Murder is wrong" means...
Moral Realism	Yes	Yes	"It is an objective fact that murder is wrong."
Moral Relevatism	Yes	No (Relative)	"My culture/society disapproves of murder."
Non Cognitivism	No	No	"Murder? Boo! Don't do it!"
Error Theory	No (All false)	No	"We made up the concept of 'wrongness'; it doesn't exist."

"Soft" Realism (The Middle Ground)

True because we prove/construct them; yes, but

There is a nuanced view often called Constructivism (associated with philosophers like Kant). It argues that morality is "constructed" by human reason. It isn't a floating physical fact like an atom (Anti-Realism), but because all rational humans must agree on it to function, it acts as if it is objective (Realism).

The "Hard" Realist View (Metaphysical Objectivity)

Morality is objective because it exists independently of human minds, like a rock, a planet, or a law of physics.  If all humans vanished tomorrow, the fact "Murder is wrong" would still float around the universe, just like the law of gravity would.

The "Soft" Realist / Constructivist View (Rational Objectivity)

Morality is objective because it is the necessary outcome of correct reasoning. It doesn't exist "out there" like a rock; it exists like a math proof. If all humans vanished, morality would vanish (because there are no minds to reason). However, as long as rational minds exist, there is only one correct answer to moral questions.

It's still objective, since it's not a matter of opinion or culture. If you disagree with a moral fact, you aren't just different you are irrational. You have made a logic error.

Vicious vs Benign Infinity

Infinity means endlessness, boundlessness, or something larger than any number, representing unlimited space, time, quantity, or extent, symbolized by ∞. It signifies a concept of "without end," applying to vast physical scales like the cosmos or abstract ideas like eternal cycles, and is used in mathematics for values beyond any finite number.

The Vicious vs Benign Infinity is useful to point out to critics who try to attack the first premise of the Kalam Cosmological Argument (KCA) - "Whatever begins to exist has a cause" or Prime Mover Argument, by trying to invoke an infinite regress. 

They will invariably try to point out a mathematical infinity/regress along the lines of (2) below and try to infer that it applies to (1) below. But this is the equivocation fallacy - is a logical error where a single word or phrase is used with different meanings in the same argument, making it seem valid when it's not. This is done by shifting meaning from one premise to the conclusion. Like using "right" to mean "entitled" in one part and "moral" in another. 

 

1. Vicious Infinity (The "borrowing money" analogy)

A vicious infinity, or vicious infinite regress, describes a situation where a task or object cannot exist because it depends on an infinite number of prior steps being completed first. Since an infinite number of steps can never be completed, the final result should not exist. If it does exist, the explanation leads to a logical contradiction.

• The money analogy: "It’s like a chain of people borrowing money from each other... if Darren pays Evan $10, and Darren got the $10 from Charlie... so on into infinity, no one actually took the money out of their pocket to start with, Evan never get paid."

• Why it is "Vicious": Because the payout depends on a source that never arrives. The chain has no foundation, so the event (Evan getting paid) is impossible. In the context of the universe, this argues that if the past were infinite, we would never have arrived at "today."
  

2. Benign Infinity (The "Fibonacci" analogy)

A benign infinity is an infinite series that exists conceptually or mathematically but does not prevent the current reality from existing. It often applies to abstract concepts (like math) or situations where the current step doesn't require the completion of the infinite series to exist.

• The Fibonacci sequence as an example: "There are still logically consistent continuations of the Fibonacci sequence that extend it all the way to negative infinity."

• Why it is "Benign": Because the number 10 doesn't "wait" for the negative infinity numbers to be counted before it can exist. The numbers are abstract and exist simultaneously. The regress is just a property of the number line, not a barrier to the existence of the number.

Summary Comparison

Feature	Vicious Infinity	Benign Infinity
Core Problem	Lack of foundation or starting point.	Infinite quantity without functional issues.
Causality	Dependent: Step B cannot happen until Step A finishes.	Independent: Steps typically exist abstractly or simultaneously.
Result	The event never happens (Logical Absurdity).	The concept is valid (Logical Consistency).
Example	An infinite chain of borrowers; no one ever gets paid.	The negative integers (... -3, -2, -1); they just exist.

Moral Realism - Defended

Moral Realism - Defended

The concept of Moral Realism is the philosophical position that morality is objective, much like science or mathematics. It holds that there are moral facts about the world that are true regardless of what anyone thinks, feels, or believes.

This view contrasts with Anti-Realism (which claims morality is subjective, culturally constructed, or fictitious) and Non-Cognitivism (which claims moral statements are just expressions of emotion, like booing or cheering).

The Core Concept

To be a moral realist, one must generally accept three pillars:

1. Cognitivism: Moral statements (e.g., "Murder is wrong") express beliefs that can be true or false. They are not just emotional outbursts.
2. Truth-Aptness: These moral beliefs describe facts. "Murder is wrong" is capable of being true in the same grammatical way that "The cat is on the mat" is true.
3. Objectivity (Independence): The truth of these facts does not depend on the observer's opinion. If the entire world believed that torturing innocents was "good," the moral realist would argue that the entire world is simply mistaken, just as if everyone believed the earth was flat.

Here is the robust defense of Moral Realism, structured by its strongest arguments.

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1. The "Companions in Guilt" Argument

This is arguably the strongest logical defense of moral realism. It argues that if you attack moral facts for being invisible or non-physical, you inadvertently destroy other things we believe are real, like mathematics and logic. This is essentially a philosophical strategy of mutually assured destruction. It defends Moral Realism by asserting that the arguments used to kill off morality would also accidentally kill off mathematics and logic—two disciplines that almost everyone (including skeptics) believes are objective and true.

Critics say moral facts (like "murder is wrong") are weird because you can't touch them or put them in a test tube. Since You cannot touch "wrongness." It isn’t made of atoms. it cannot exist. Since we can’t see/touch them, how do we know them? We must rely on "intuition," which skeptics claim is unscientific.

The Defense: You also cannot touch or see the number 7, or the logical rule of Modus Ponens, or the concept of validity. Yet, we believe 2+2=4 is an objective fact, not just an opinion. Thus, If mathematical truths can exist without being physical objects, why can't moral truths? To reject moral realism because it isn't "physical" forces you to reject mathematics and logic. If you want to keep math, you have to allow room for non-physical objective truths (companions)

2. The Argument from Epistemic Norms

Epistemic norms are the rules and standards that govern how we form, maintain, and revise our beliefs. While moral norms tell you how to act (e.g., "don't steal"), and prudential norms tell you what is in your best interest (e.g., "eat healthy food"), epistemic norms tell you how to be a "good thinker." They are strictly concerned with truth, knowledge, and justification.

• You ought to believe p only if p is true.
• You ought to proportion your belief to the strength of your evidence
• You ought not believe both p and not-p at the same time.
• You should only tate as fact that which you know.

This version is arguably stronger because it focuses on Normativity (rules about what you ought to do). It is largely associated with philosopher Terence Cuneo and his book The Normative Web.

The Attack on Morality

Skeptics argue that "Ought" statements are not real facts. The universe just is; it contains atoms and energy. It does not contain instructions on what you should do. Therefore, moral "oughts" (e.g., "You ought not kill") are just human inventions or emotions.

The "Guilt" of Logic

The fact is Logic and Science are entirely built on "ought" statements. These are called Epistemic Norms (norms of belief).

• If you believe P and you believe P > Q, logic dictates that you ought to believe Q.
• If you see overwhelming evidence for a theory, you ought to believe that theory is likely true.
• You ought not believe that A and non-A are both true at the same time.

If the skeptic says, "There are no objective 'oughts' in the universe," they fall into a trap:

• If there are no "oughts," then there is no rule saying I ought to accept their argument, even if it is valid.

• If they say, "But my argument is the best explanation, so you should accept it," they are appealing to a binding, objective norm (a logical "ought").

• Therefore, to argue against moral norms, they must utilize epistemic norms. They are proving that objective norms exist in the very act of trying to disprove them

Thus, one cannot do Science without Morality (or at least, normative facts).

The "Companions in Guilt" argument forces the skeptic to choose between two uncomfortable positions:

Position	Consequence
Accept the Companions	If you admit that Math and Logic are objective, non-physical realities, you lose your main reason for rejecting Morality. You have opened the door to "abstract objective truths."
Reject the Companions	If you bite the bullet and say "Okay, Math and Logic are not objectively true either," you destroy your ability to reason or make scientific arguments. You end up in total Nihilism.

3. The Argument from Moral Progress

This one of the most intuitive and historically grounded defenses of Moral Realism. It posits that the undeniable improvement in human morality over time (e.g., the abolition of slavery, the recognition of women's rights) cannot be logically explained unless there is an objective moral standard we are discovering.  

Here is an expanded analysis of how this argument works, why it is powerful, and how it defends itself against skeptics.

The "Yardstick" Analogy.

The argument rests on a simple logical rule: To say something has "improved," you must measure it against a fixed standard.

Imagine you are trying to determine if a child has grown taller. You cannot just compare the child to themselves from yesterday (too small a change) or to a cloud (which keeps moving). You need a ruler (a fixed standard). If there is no ruler, you can only say the child has changed, not that they have grown.

If Moral Realism is false, there is no "moral ruler. A Relativist can say, "*We used to like slavery; now we dislike it.*" They can describe the change. But they **cannot** say, "*We are better now.*" To say we are better implies we are closer to the "correct" answer than our ancestors were.  So the question to relativists is "is society better without slaves"? 

Almost everyone believes that abolishing chattel slavery was a genuine improvement, not just a random change in fashion (like switching from bell-bottoms to skinny jeans). The moment you admit it was better, you implicitly admit there is an objective standard of "Good" that slavery failed to meet.

Historical Evidence: The Phenomenon of "Convergence"

Realists argue that moral history does not look like random drift; it looks like scientific convergence.

In science, we started with many different theories (alchemy, humors, flat earth). Over centuries, scientists from different cultures converged on a single truth (chemistry, germ theory, round earth) because they were all studying the same objective reality

Realists argue morality shows a similar pattern.  Ancient cultures were vastly different (some sacrificed children, some had slaves, some were warrior castes). Over millennia, the world has slowly converged on specific values: Human Rights, equality, and the reduction of unnecessary suffering.

Realists argue that this convergence is best explained by the fact that we are slowly discovering the same moral facts, just as we discovered the same physics facts.

One of the most powerful formulations of this argument comes from philosopher Peter Singer.  Singer observes that moral progress almost always follows a specific direction: the expansion of the circle of moral concern.

• Primitive: "Only me and my kin matter."
• Tribe: "Only my tribe matters; strangers can be killed."
• Nation: "Only my countrymen matter."
• Humanity: "All humans matter (Universal Declaration of Human Rights)."
• Future: "Animals and future generations matter."

If morality were just random cultural "drift," we might expect the circle to shrink sometimes and expand others randomly. The fact that it consistently widens suggests a directional discovery process: we are realizing that the boundaries we drew were arbitrary errors.

4. Defense Against Skeptics

Skeptics (Anti-Realists/Evolutionary Debunkers) try to debunk this argument by saying we didn't abolish slavery because it was "objectively wrong." We abolished it because free markets were more efficient, or because cooperation helped us survive better. "Progress" is just "better adaptation," not moral truth.

However, this ignores the reasons people actually gave. When the British ended the slave trade, they did so at massive economic cost to themselves. It wasn't efficient; it was expensive. The people fighting for it didn't say, "This is inefficient." They said, "This is evil."

If we explain away progress as just "economic adaptation," we have to believe that every great moral reformer (Gandhi, King, Wilberforce) was deluded about their own motivations. Realism takes their insights seriously.

Skeptic's also argue that Realists are just biased - *You think the present is "better" because you live in it. If the Nazis had won, they would call their world "progress.*

But, we can objectively demonstrate incoherence in past moralities. The American Founders wrote "*All men are created equal*" but owned slaves. This is a logical contradiction.

Progress happened because we fixed the contradiction (we realized "All men" must include Black men, and women).

The Nazis were objectively wrong because their ideology relied on false scientific claims (e.g., that Jews were biologically inferior). Real moral progress is often the result of better reasoning and removing logical contradictions, which is an objective process.

The Argument from Moral Progress is the Realist's strongest emotional and historical weapon. It forces the skeptic into an uncomfortable corner:

To deny Moral Realism, you must be willing to look at the Holocaust, Slavery, and Apartheid and say, "*We didn't solve these because they were truly wrong; we just changed our minds, and our current view is no more 'true' than the views of the slaveholders.*"

If morality were just subjective taste (like preferring chocolate to vanilla), we couldn't say abolishing slavery was "better"—only "different." We would have to admit that a slave-owning society is just as valid as a free one, merely "different flavors."

Our strong intuition that we have improved as a species implies there is a standard (a "moral yardstick") we are measuring ourselves against. Realism is the only view that allows for the concept of genuine progress  Most people find that conclusion impossible to live with, which drives them back toward Realism.

5. The "Euthyphro" Defense (Independence)

The "Euthyphro" Defense is a crucial strategic move by Moral Realists. It borrows its name from one of Plato’s most famous dialogues, the Euthyphro, to argue that Moral Realism is the only ethical framework that prevents morality from becoming a tool of tyranny.

This defense essentially argues that if you reject objective, independent moral facts, you accidentally embrace a world where "Might Makes Right."

1. The Original Dilemma (Plato)

To understand the defense, you first need the context of the dilemma Plato presented in the Euthyphro. Socrates asks Euthyphro a deceptively simple question about the nature of "piety" (or "the good"):

"Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?"

This creates a fork in the road for how we define Goodness:

Horn 1 (Independence/Realism): Goodness is independent. God (or society/law) loves it because it is already good.

Horn 2 (Voluntarism/Subjectivism): Goodness is dependent. It becomes good simply because God (or society/law) decides it is.

The Realist argues that if you choose the second option (that morality is created by a mind, whether God's or the Majority's), you destroy the meaning of morality itself.

The Arbitrariness Problem

If morality is merely "what the powerful say it is" (Horn 2), then the rules are arbitrary. If the majority commanded us to torture innocent children for fun, would that become morally good?

If you say "Yes," you have admitted that morality has no actual content; it’s just blind obedience. "Good" loses its meaning and just means "what I was told to do."

Realists say, "No, even if God commanded that, it would still be wrong." This proves there is a standard of Right and Wrong above the commander. This standard is the "Moral Fact" (Realism).

If Moral Realism is false, then morality is likely a construct of society.

Imagine a totalitarian government passes a law that legalizes genocide against a minority group. The majority of society supports it.

The Non-Realist Dilemma: If morality is defined by "society's agreement" or "the law," then by definition, the genocide is now morally right in that country. A non-realist has no platform to stand on and say, "This law is wrong." They can only say, "I personally don't like it."

The Realist Defense: Realism allows you to say: "The Law says X, and Society agrees with X, but X is objectively WRONG." This separates Power from Rightness. It gives the dissenter (the Martin Luther King Jr., the Sophie Scholl) the metaphysical ground to stand against the entire world and declare the world mistaken.

Who defines "Good"?	Consequence
The Subject / The State	"Might Makes Right." If the Nazis win and brainwash everyone, they become "morally right."
Reality Itself	"Right Makes Might." Even if the Nazis win, they are objectively wrong. Truth exists independently of power.

Finally, Moral Realism offers the most robust defense against authoritarianism.

If morality is created by minds (Subjectivism) or by society (Relativism), then the majority is always right. If 51% of a society votes to exterminate a minority, and morality is defined by that society, then the extermination is "morally right" by definition.

Moral Realism provides the only coherent ground to stand up and say, "The King is wrong," "The Law is wrong". It's the only philosophical shield that protects minorities and dissenters from the tyranny of the majority opinion.

Summary of the Defense

Argument	The Defense in a Nutshell
Companions in Guilt	If you deny moral facts, you must deny Math and Logic too.
Epistemic Norms	Science relies on "oughts" (rules of reasoning). If "oughts" aren't real, Science collapses.
Moral Progress	We have improved (e.g., ending slavery). Progress requires an objective standard to measure against.
Euthyphro	if you reject objective, independent moral facts, you accidentally embrace a world where "Might Makes Right."